View source for Ii-electrons

I'''electron''' yintwana nje yento ntwana encinane ye-[[matter]] ne-[[energy]]. uphawu lwayo yi-'''e<sup>−</sup>'''. 

I-electron iphuma kw-[[i-subatomic particle]]. Kukholelwa okokuba yi[[elementary particle]] kuba ayinakuhlahleleka okanye ayinakucukucezeka ibe yiyo nantonina encinane ngaphezu kokuba ingako. <ref name=Purcell>Purcell, Edward M. 1985. ''Electricity and Magnetism''. Berkeley Physics Course Volume 2. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-004908-4.</ref> [[ukutshaja ngokombane||Itshajwa]] ngophawu olu-negative ngokozibuthe,<ref>{{cite web|title=JERRY COFF|url=http://www.universetoday.com/73323/what-is-an-electron/|accessdate=10 September 2010}}</ref> kwaye intshukumo yazo phantse [[ibesisantya sokuqhwanyaza kombane]].<ref>For instance, as [[beta particle]]s, and in the inner [[electron shell]]s of [[chemical element|elements]] with a large [[atomic number]]. US Dept. of Energy: [https://web.archive.org/web/20100530161022/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy99/phy99092.htm]</ref> 

Ii-Electrons zithabatha inxaxheba kw[[i-gravitation]]al, [[i-electromagnetic force|i-electromagnetic]] nakw[[iweak interaction]]s.<ref name=Anastopoulos1>Anastopoulos, Charis 2008. ''Particle or Wave: the evolution of the concept of matter in modern physics''. Princeton University Press. pp261–262. ISBN 0691135126. http://books.google.com/?id=rDEvQZhpltEC&pg=PA261.</ref> I-[[electricity]] enika amandla ee-radios, ee-moto, nezinye izinto ezininzi zenziwe ngee-electrons ezininzi nezihamba ngeengcingo okanye ngezinye iizinto ahamba ngazo amandla ombane zinto ezo kuthiwa z[[Electrical conductor|ii-conductors]].

== Inkcazo ==
[[File:Bohr atom model English.svg|right|thumb|Imodel i-[[Niels Bohr]] model ye-atom. Amaqweqwe amathathu e-electron ange-nucleus, ane-electron ehamba isuka kwinqanaba lesibini nelokuqala ihamba ikhiqiza ii-[[photon]].
Ii-Electrons zine[[tshaji yombane]] encinane kuzo zonke. Le tshaji yombane ilingana netshaji ye-[[ii-proton|proton]], kodwa yona eye-electon inophawu oluchaseneyo nolweproton. ngenxa yoko, ii-electrons [[Uzibuthe wee-Electrons|zibanombizelane]] kw-iiprotons ze-atomic [[Nucleus (physics)|atoms ezikwii-nuclei]] zitsho zenze [[ii-atoms]].
i-electron inobunzima bayo obuphindaphindwe ka-1/1836 kunobo be-proton.<ref name=nist_codata_mu>{{cite web
|url=http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mpsme
|title=CODATA value: proton-electron mass ratio
|series=2006 CODATA recommended values|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology|accessdate=2009-07-18}}</ref>
Inye indlela ongacinga ngayo malunga nokkokuba zifumaneka phi na ii-electrons kwi-atom kukuba zijikeleza ndawoninye ukusuka kw[[i-Nucleus (physics)|inucleus]]. ngale ndlela, ii-electrons ezikwi-atom zihlala ku-[[kumaqokobhe e-electrons]] ajikeleze umphakathi kwisizikithi se- nucleus. Iqokobhe le-electron ngalinye linikwa inombolo ethi 1, 2, 3, njalo, njalo, ukusuka kuleyo ifufutshane kunazo zonke kwi-nucleus (kanye kumphakathi wesikhumba esiliqokobhe). Iqokobhe ngalinye lingagcina inani elithile lee-electrons. Isenzo sokwa[[aba|biwa]]kwee-electrons zisabelwa kumaqokobhe-ngamaqokobhe kuthiwa kwenziwa i-electronic arrangement (okanye luhlobo emile ngayo i-electronic). Ukucwangciswa kwe-electronic kungaboniswa ngokuthi inonjolwe ngamanani okanye nge[[ielectron diagram|electron diagram]]. (indlela eyahlukileyo yokucinga ngendawo ezifumaneka kuyo ii-electrons kukusebenzisa [[ii-quantum mechanics]] ukuze kubalwe [[ii-atomic orbitals]] zazo)

I-electron yenye is one of a class of [[subatomic particle]]s called [[lepton]]s. The electron has a negative [[electric charge]]. The electron has another property, called [[spin (physics)|spin]]. Its spin value is 1/2, which makes it a [[fermion]].

While most electrons are found in atoms, others move independently in matter, or together as [[cathode rays]] in a [[vacuum]]. In some [[superconductor]]s, electrons move in pairs. When electrons flow, this flow is called electricity, or an [[electric current]]. 

An object can be described as 'negatively charged' if there are more electrons than protons in an object, or 'positively charged' when there are more protons than electrons. Electrons can move from one object to another when touched. They may be attracted to another object with opposite charge, or repelled when they both have the same charge. When an object is 'grounded', electrons from the charged object go into the ground, making the object neutral. This is what [[lightning]] conductors do.

=== Chemical reactions ===
Electrons in their shells round an atom are the basis of [[chemical reaction]]s. Complete outer shells, with maximum electrons, are less reactive. Outer shells with less than maximum electrons are reactive. The number of electrons in atoms is the underlying basis of the chemical [[periodic table]].<ref>Pauling, Linus C. 1960. ''The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry'' (3rd ed). Cornell University Press. pp4–10. ISBN 0801403332. http://books.google.com/?id=L-1K9HmKmUUC.</ref>

=== Measurement ===
Electric ''charge'' can be directly measured with a device called an [[electrometer]]. Electric ''current'' can be directly measured with a [[galvanometer]]. The measurement given off by a galvanometer is different from the measurement given off by an electrometer. Today laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons.

==== 'Seeing' an electron ====
In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of [[particle detector]]s, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge.<ref name=grupen>Grupen, Claus 1999. "Physics of Particle Detection". AIP Conference Proceedings, Instrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics, VIII. 536. Istanbul: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Company. pp. 3–34. doi:10.1063/1.1361756.</ref> In one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for 10 months.<ref name="nobel1989">{{cite web
|author=Staff|year=2008|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1989/illpres/
|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1989
|publisher=The Nobel Foundation
|accessdate=2008-09-24}}</ref> The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Ekstrom|first=Philip
|title=The isolated Electron
|journal=Scientific American|year=1980
|volume=243|issue=2|pages=91–101
|url=http://tf.nist.gov/general/pdf/166.pdf
 |format=PDF| accessdate=2008-09-24}}</ref>

The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at [[Lund University]] in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called [[1 E-18 s|attosecond]] pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Mauritsson
|first=Johan
|url=http://www.atto.fysik.lth.se/video/pressrelen.pdf
|title=Electron filmed for the first time ever
|format=PDF
|publisher=Lunds Universitet
|accessdate=2008-09-17
|archive-date=2009-03-25
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325194101/http://www.atto.fysik.lth.se/video/pressrelen.pdf
}}</ref><ref name=Mauritsson>{{cite journal
|last=Mauritsson
|first=J.
|year=2008
|url=http://www.atto.fysik.lth.se/publications/papers/MauritssonPRL2008.pdf
|format=pdf
|title=Coherent Electron Scattering Captured by an Attosecond Quantum Stroboscope
|journal=Physical Review Letters
|volume=100
|page=073003
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.073003
|last2=Johnsson
|first2=P.
|last3=Mansten
|first3=E.
|last4=Swoboda
|first4=M.
|last5=Ruchon
|first5=T.
|last6=L’huillier
|first6=A.
|last7=Schafer
|first7=K. J.
|access-date=2015-10-12
|archive-date=2017-02-27
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227150021/http://www.atomic.physics.lu.se/research/attosecond-physics/
|dead-url=yes
}}</ref> The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can also be visualized.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Damascelli|first=Andrea
|title=Probing the electronic structure of complex systems by ARPES|journal=Physica Scripta|year=2004
|volume=T109|pages=61–74
|doi=10.1238/Physica.Topical.109a00061}}</ref>

=== Anti-particle ===
The [[antiparticle]] of the electron is called a [[positron]]. This is identical to the electron, but carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, they may [[scatter]] off each other or be totally [[annihilation|annihilate]]d, producing a pair (or more) of [[gamma ray]] [[photon]]s.

== History of its discovery ==
The effects of electrons were known long before it could be explained. The [[Ancient Greeks]] knew that rubbing [[amber]] against [[fur]] attracted small objects. Now we know the rubbing strips off electrons, and that gives an electric charge to the amber.
Many physicists worked on the electron. [[J.J. Thomson]] proved it existed,<ref name="ReferenceA">Davis & Falconer, ''J.J. Thomson and the Discovery of the Electron''</ref> in [[1897]], but another man gave it the name 'electron'.<ref>Shipley, Joseph T. 1945. ''Dictionary of word origins''. The Philosophical Library. p133.</ref>

==Related pages==
* [[Proton]]
* [[Neutron]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Other websites==
{{Commons category|Electrons}}
*{{cite web
 | title = The Discovery of the Electron
 | url = http://www.aip.org/history/electron/
 | publisher = [[American Institute of Physics]], Center for History of Physics
 | accessdate = 2015-10-12
 | archive-date = 2008-03-16
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080316233916/http://www.aip.org/history/electron/
 | dead-url = yes
 }}
*{{cite web
 | title = Particle Data Group
 | url = http://pdg.lbl.gov/
 | publisher = [[University of California]]
}}
*{{cite book
 | last = Bock | first = R.K.
 | last2 = Vasilescu | first2 = A.
 | year = 1998
 | title = The Particle Detector BriefBook
 | url = http://physics.web.cern.ch/Physics/ParticleDetector/BriefBook/
 | edition = 14th
 | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
 | isbn = 3-540-64120-3
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Electrons}}
[[Category:Subatomic particles]]